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Philosophical
& Religious Background of Greco-Roman Paganism
Schools
of Philosophy
Mystery Religions
The
following material draws from several sources:
Bruce,
Frederick F. New
Testament History. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1980 (1969).
Metzger,
Bruce M. The New Testament: Its Background, Growth, and
Content. 3rd ed. Nashville: Abingdon, 2003.
Ferguson,
Everett. Backgrounds
of Early Christianity.
2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1993.
Roetzel,
Calvin J. The
World That Shaped The New Testament.
Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2002. |
Although
birthed and nurtured in the fold of Palestinian Judaism,
Christianity was soon forced out into the big, wide, and
syncretistic world of Hellenism. Hellenistic
rationalism had destroyed the foundations for naive faith in the
old Olympian pantheon of gods and goddesses, though some form of
piety was still common. There
was also widespread agnosticism, materialism, and skepticism: what
historians of the era call, 'the failure of nerve.' Lacking
a sound faith foundation, many people drifted into credulity and
superstition ... 1.
Astrology, divination, and magic: promised control of uncertain
circumstances. 2.
The Imperial Cult: promised deliverance and security under
imperial patronage. 3.
Mystery religions: promised purification, enlightenment and
salvation. ...
while more rational people sought answers and community in
various philosophies.
Top
Schools
of Philosophy in the Greco-Roman World
Platonism
Epicureanism
Stoicism Cynics
Other Schools
Platonism:
Plato
(427-347 BC) was, in fact, a pupil of Socrates from whom he
learned:
- the method of dialectic: discussion and questioning of
assumptions.
- the need to ponder and appreciate ethical goodness and
integrity.
He
taught in Athens, near a grove sacred to Academus (hence:
the Academy).
His
writings are in the form of dialogues between Socrates and
disciples.
His
thought has been formative, even among Christians.
His
philosophy in brief:
- reality is found not in what is physically perceived or
sensed.
- reality is the eternal idea or form, of which we
see only a shadow.
- by grasping for the eternal form, our soul reaches out to its
eternal home.
- we escape the prison/tomb of the body by reaching out to
goodness/truth/beauty.
- this is dualism: opposing two poles—matter
and mind/spirit.
Plato's
most famous pupil: Aristotle, teacher of Alexander.
- Aristotle has been one of the most influential thinkers and
writers in western history.
Top
Epicureanism:
Epicurus
(342-270 BC), contrary to popular impressions, was not a
sensualist (epicure).
- he rejected Plato's emphasis on words (dialectic) and
abstractions (forms).
- he respected the senses as the source of ideas and truth (common
sense).
- advocated the pursuit of simple (not addictive or destructive)
pleasures.
He,
too, taught in Athens, in his Garden, where his community
gathered.
His
philosophy gave rise to some devoted communities of followers.
His
philosophy in brief:
- he rejected Plato's obsession with abstractions, embraced the
world of the senses.
- trusted senses and physicality for knowledge of reality.
- innocent pleasure—avoiding
fear and both pain and overindulgence—is
good.
- the greatest pleasure is found in living wisely, honorably and
justly in community.
- the gods—if they exist—are remote and have nothing to do with human
existence.
- death is the end of us: the atoms of our body are dispersed
into the cosmos.
Epicurus'
famous disciple: Lucretius (99-55 BC), Roman poet, author
De Rerum Natura.
Top
Stoicism:
Zeno
(336-263 BC) was a contemporary of Epicurus.
- originally from Citium in Cyprus, but taught in Athens.
- taught in a colonnade called the Painted Porch or Stoa.
- so his followers became known as Stoics.
He
advocated living in harmony with the Reason/Logos behind the
universe.
His
philosophy taught inner discipline in the face of adversity
(hence stoic).
His
philosophy in brief:
- the universe is obviously pervaded by divine Reason/Logos,
not random, pitiless Fate.
- that is why we see so much order and beauty in the creation,
in and around us.
- Reason lives in our souls, trapped in our bodies, a
spark of the divine Logos (dualist).
- so, although the physical world is subject to all kinds of
adversity and corruption ...
... we can rise above it by learning to live in harmony with
divine Reason/Logos.
- fosters an abstract, impersonal view of deity, a philosophy,
not a religion.
Famous
Stoics: Seneca (4 BC-65 AD); Marcus Aurelius (121-180 BC), wrote Meditations.
Top
Cynics:
Antisthenes,
the founder, was an older contemporary of Plato.
- the most famous of his disciples was Diogenes of Sinope.
- determined to live unconventionally, he lived in a huge tub.
- at Alexander's offer of a favor, he said, 'Get out of my
light!'
Cynics
advocated a back-to-nature, extreme simplicity, opposed to human
convention.
We
should live like the beasts: hence the name, Cynics
(dogs).
Their
philosophy in brief:
- we should live as simply as possible, be independent of
external things/circumstances.
- don't be caught up in the false conventions of the world:
ambition, censure, kudos.
- be nonchalant about life; be downright obnoxious to those
caught up in convention.
Cynics
thought themselves to be citizens of the Cosmopolis,
whole world was their city.
Going
about with a beggar's purse and missionary zeal to share their
views with others.
Some
recent scholarship has tried to present Jesus and the apostles
as Cynics!
Paul
occasionally uses the diatribe, a conversational
'dialogue' employed by the Cynics.
Top
Other
Schools
Aristotelians:
Aristotle (384-322 BC) influential as both scholar and
scientist.
- more appreciated later, but then a shaper of western thought
for millennia.
Skeptics:
Pyrrho of Elis (365-275 BC) was the founder of this
school:
- there are so many contradictions in perceptions and opinions
about reality.
- ultimate certainty is therefore unattainable: we should
suspend judgment.
Eclectics:
their name suggests their philosophy:
- they took the best of any system, and discarded what they did
not like.
Pythagoreans:
Pythagoras of Samos (582-496 BC) was a mathematician and mystic.
- strongly dualistic (body is a tomb), yet ethical and
conscientious.
- believed in transmigration of souls (form of reincarnation).
- contributed to the all pervasive Gnosticism of first century
religion.
Top
Mystery
Religions
Earth
Mother Cults Cults
of Frenzied Abandonment Male
Cults
We
have already noted the failure of nerve that occurred as
rationalism undermined naive faith in the old Greco-Roman pantheon
and its civil religion and piety. But for many then as now, the
more philosophical approaches did not satisfy their intuitive
awareness of, and openness to, the supernatural and divine here on
earth.
To
endure the harsh realities of life at the mercy of capricious
Fate/Fortune, many sought comfort in the mysteries of the
ancient earth religions reinvented as universal and personal
religions. What had been local or regional cults celebrating the
annual life and death cycle of nature, became expressions of
yearning for rebirth, for relationship with deity, or
abandonment to other forces.
The
most common Hellenistic mystery cults may be thought of as:
- Earth mother cults: Eleusinian Cult (Greek); Isiac Cult
(Egyptian).
- Cults of frenzied abandonment: Dionysiac Cult (Greek); Cult of
Cybele (Anatolian).
- Male Cults: Mithraic Cult (Indo-Iranian; Persian/Parthian).
Top
Earth
Mother Cults:
The
Eleusinian Cult:
Eleusis
was a small town just 15 miles west of Athens.
- commemorated the myth of Demeter, Persephone, and Pluto/Hades.
- Persephone, Demeter's daughter, was kidnapped by Hades to the
underworld.
- Demeter, frantic and bitter, held back the crops from growing.
- finally, she received her daughter back from Spring through
Fall each year.
- the Eleusinians had been kind to Demeter during her search.
- so Demeter taught them agriculture, and instituted the
mysteries there.
This
was a well respected Athenian civic cult:
- highly guarded secret mysteries.
- 'lesser mysteries' in Spring, 'greater mysteries' in Fall.
- baptism in the sea, sprinkling with pig's blood.
- festal procession, dramatic reenactment and initiation
- initiates 'shared' Demeter's experience, and she theirs
The
Isiac Cult:
The
myth of Isis and Osiris was originally an ancient Egyptian one.
- Osiris, Isis' husband, was murdered and dismembered by his
wicked brother, Set.
- the parts of his corpse were scattered far and wide.
- Isis, in grief, searched for and retrieved almost all of the
corpse.
- after lamenting him, she engaged in magical rites to revive
him.
- he became 'Lord of the Underworld, Ruler of the Dead'.
Ptolemy
I Soter hellenized the cult, replacing Osiris with Serapis.
- Isis became revered as an empathetic, compassionate 'Queen of
Heaven'.
This
cult spread throughout the Empire:
- described by Apuleius in 'The Golden Ass.'
- Isis understood/had shared in initiates'/devotees' trials on
earth.
- secret mysteries and public ceremonies.
- elaborate and impressive processions.
- male and female initiates and devotees, priests and
priestesses.
- sometimes provided a female option/counterpart to Mithraism.
- precedent for Mariolatry in the Christian era.
Top
Cults
of Frenzied Abandonment:
Dionysiac
Cult:
Dionysius
(Bacchus) was god of wine and animal life.
- his rites, the Bacchanalia, included:
- drinking oneself into a wild and intoxicated state.
- dancing with others into a frenzied state of abandon.
- killing and devouring raw some poor creature.
Both
Greek and Roman authorities feared and proscribed it.
This
orgiastic cult persisted in spite of being declared illicita.
Cult
of Cybele:
Cybele,
a hellenized ancient Anatolian earth mother.
- her rites based on the myth of Cybele and Attis.
- Attis castrated himself in devotion to her.
- devotees danced selves into frenzy.
- some castrated themselves, and became priests.
Wealthy
devotees underwent the taurobolium.
- bathed/reborn in blood of a slaughtered bull.
This
cult was officially brought to Rome during the Punic War, 204
BC.
Top
Male
Cults:
The
Mithraic Cult:
Mithras
was originally a god of the ancient Indo-Iranian people.
- appropriated by the Zoroastrian religion, details rather
vague.
- Mithras was a mediator between humans and Ahura Mazda, god of
light.
- legend associated him with a virgin birth, death, and
resurrection.
- heroic and militant fighter.
- brought westward by Persians/Parthians/Armenians (Mithridates).
- never caught on with Greeks, but brought to Rome.
This
cult really caught on among Roman soldiers:
- Mithras was a macho 'action' god.
- initiates and devotees were male only.
- various stages of initiation/progress in the cult.
- gathered together in caves/cellars/grottos.
- central symbol was image of tauroctony.
- appropriated taurobolium from Cybele cult.
- spread by Legions to border areas of the Empire.
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